Food Insecurity in Low-Income Areas Linked to Political Policies

LET THEM EAT CAKE: THE RISE OF FOOD INSECURITY IN LOW SOCIOECONOMIC AREAS SINCE LYNDON B. JOHNSON’S WAR ON POVERTY A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE BACHELOR OF ARTS BY HAMPTON UNIVERSITY HAMPTON, VIRGINIA MAY 2020 ABSTRACT Supermarkets and grocery stores across the country in low socioeconomic neighborhoods do not have the healthiest or highest quality of food for affordable prices. Families in these tough situations usually have to make a decision between fresh foods that may tend to be more expensive, or foods with high sugars and fats that are more affordable and are closer in proximity to their residence. The following research will discuss information relating to the evolution of food insecurity in America. It will focus on the highest level of executive leadership in America throughout the years and the impact both of America’s most dominant political parties have had on food insecurity. The time period that will be discussed is 1964 till current day. The larger overarching study is health and health impacts. The highest level of executive leadership that will be discussed is the presidential administration. The following six administrations will be examined in the study: Lyndon B. Johnson’s administration, Richard Nixon’s administration, Ronald Reagan’s administration, Bill Clinton’s administration, Barack Obama’s administration, and lastly Donald Trump’s administration. Positive and negative effects of the decisions made within various presidencies will create correlations to the current situation America is struggling with today. The author will explain and apply Political Science methods and thought processes to the thesis. Conclusions will be drawn about the various administrations. Additionally, conclusions will be drawn about the two primary political parties in the United States based off the six presidencies. Recommendations are also made about how government allocation of funds can be used in a more efficiently and effectively to improve this epidemic in America. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM In 2006, Science Direct published an article by the University of Illinois at Chicago Department of Economics and the University’s Institute for Health Research and Policy. In the article the researchers analyzed current availability at the time of the study of food stores and how specific characteristics play a role such as one’s socioeconomic status and race. Research was conducted throughout the country in areas considered to be predominately white versus black and predominately Hispanic communities. The research found that low income communities have less chain supermarket grocery stores than other communities with higher socio-economic standing. Roughly seventy-five percent of the supermarket chains mentioned in the study were found to be in ‘middle income neighborhoods’. In Los Angeles County in California research was conducted in an interesting manner by comparing zip codes. Typically, what is considered non-Hispanic zip codes in the county of Los Angeles had more supermarkets per household as compared to the Hispanic zip code areas. The non–Hispanic zip codes were typically considered to be in a higher class than those Hispanic zip code areas. These rates have also proven to be true among low socio- economic communities verses high socio-economic communities. The study as a whole reveal that a subtle connection can be made between class and race. Both race and economic status are characteristics of the community. They play a role in availability to supermarkets. The study also attacks the issue that non chain grocery stores which are typically small are located in poor zip codes, these small non-chain grocery stores are usually called “corner stores or bodegas”. These small non-chain grocery stores typically lack quality nutritional food as compared to large scale grocery stores. “Corner stores” are geographically closer to low income areas. The study indicates that a majority of non- white races live in these low-income areas, traditionally. Therefore, corner stores provide easier access for people who live in these areas. The study examines zip code areas and the median income of various races which further proves that there is a connection between low-income individuals and their race/ethnicity. Looking at history can help one understand what has been done or not been done to have gotten to this point today. Looking at what was done in the past could help one figure out necessary steps and procedures to create a solution to this problem. A starting point of the past to analyze is the time period of 1964 to 1965. These specific two years is when former President Lyndon Baines Johnson established “The War on Poverty” in the United States. In Carl M. Brauer’s article titled “Kennedy, Johnson and the War on Poverty” Brauer states that the War on Poverty itself was very political. The federal government essentially was looking for a solution to reducing the poverty rate in America. Poverty in America, had been on the government’s agenda prior to the 1950s but once “rediscovered” it became a very partisan issue. Authors, various politicians and many others with influence in the world began to see the issue and drew more and more attention to it. In the mid-1950s, Senator Paul Douglas, of Illinois, proposed legislation in favor of aid to depressed areas which essentially were public works programs. Some Republicans at the time were in support of public programs but on a very small scale, traditionally Democrats were in support of public programs. Former Democratic Governor of New York, Averell Harriman, presented to the New York legislature an idea about providing funds to study poverty and its causes as well as being able to establish programs for low – income families. Another Democrat at the time who was running for president, Adlai E. Stevenson, stated “that we can abolish poverty” this mentioned in the book “Inside The War on Poverty: The Impact of Food Stamps on Birth Outcomes. On the other side, Republicans were enjoying their time with the free enterprise system and were not concerned with the struggle of the masses. Former President John F. Kennedy, did not focus on poverty until after his first two years in office, though it was mentioned in his inaugural address multiple times as he spoke on the fight against poverty. Liberal writers at the time also drew attention to the issue of poverty. Kenneth Galbraith, a best-selling author from the 1950’s to the 2000’s, wrote a book titled The Affluent Society. In his book he addressed poverty in America and how it should be viewed as a “national disgrace”. His solution to this problem was investing in the poor and their communities in their article “Inside The War on Poverty: The Impact of Food Stamps on Birth Outcomes,” Douglas Almond, Hilary W. Hoynes and Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach note how the War on Poverty had an impact on birth outcomes. This article further goes to show what the federal government did or did not do to help the American people. The article discusses how the increased birth rate improved neonatal mortality. This means that due to the legislation of food stamps infant mortality decreased and baby weight increased. Researchers found that outcomes for infants improved with the Food Stamp Program. The current day program that is implemented is the Food Stamp Program that began with former President Kennedy in the year 1961. The program began in eight different impoverished counties then in the following two years it was expanded to forty-three different counties. The research conducted by this study is very rare in the fact that it shows a positive correlation from policy implementation. As it is discussed later in the thesis, Democratic officials have been the underlying hope to close the gap between class and neglect from the federal government. Due to this struggle between class and dissension as well as differences of opinion concerning the implementation of federal policy, the extent of implementation was lackadaisical. The United States federal government has neglected its citizens in multiple ways throughout the years. This neglect includes various areas such as health care, education, water safety, and most importantly food security/nutrition. A fragment of hope was once apparent during Lyndon B. Johnson’s War on Poverty. Many studies and books have been written about the issue of food security. The National Institute of Food and Agriculture by the United States Department of Agriculture, United States National Library of Medicine National Institute of Health, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations are just some organizations that have conducted studies and programs about food security and nutrition. In order to understand this developing issue context must be applied to the problem. Many have analyzed this topic from the early 1900s, the 1930s and lastly the 1960s and forward. What is so interesting about the 1960s is that this is the time period, President Lyndon B. Johnson, created the War on Poverty. Research and statistics prove that the struggle of nutrition and food security disproportionately impacts low income communities at a greater rate than any other group in the United States. Many questions are raised around 1960s food (and) nutrition, since funding for food and nutrition was doubled during this time and there was a monumental piece of legislation passed during this decade. There are many factors impacting the issue of food insecurity such as socio-economic status, employability, ethnicity, living conditions environment, and much, much more but the root cause is still an unsolved mystery. One would believe that due to the fact the United States of America, is one of the richest nations in the world, food security should not be an issue, but that simply is not true. Research has shown that roughly fifty- eight percent of food insecure households were participants in at least one if not more of three of the biggest federally funded food and nutrition programs. These three programs were the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and the National School Lunch Program. The current state of food insecurity in America is confusing to say the least. Why has food insecurity continued to grow disproportionately impacting low socio-economic communities throughout the United States? STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Due to the lack of federal policy development and implementation since 1969, food insecurity has grown, disproportionately impacting communities of low socio-economic status due to Republican elected officials. METHODOLOGY: This study is a case study and qualitative study. This research is a case study because it reflects on previously conducted research which includes qualitative research, ethnographic, participant observation, and history. This research study takes a look at various policy development from 1964 through current day. The research will spotlight various Presidential administrations. This study will shine a spotlight on the following six Presidential administrations; the Johnson administration, Nixon administration, Reagan administration, Clinton administration, Obama administration, and the Trump administration. This study deeply analyzes the problem of food insecurity as a whole in communities of low socio-economic status and how legislation and the majority of Executive leadership have played a role in neglecting these communities. Due to this rigorous study of a singular issue and understanding how it plays a larger role in society it is a case study by definition. John Gerring identifies and defines a case study as an “intensive study of a single unit for the purpose of understanding a larger class of (similar) units.” This study analyzes other bodies of work. It takes methods such as data collection, analyzation, refocusing, and theory development and modification of the research question to identify what may be impacting factors on the research question. In researching food insecurity, data must be gathered about poor communities throughout the United States. Data also must be gathered about legislation starting from 1964 moving forward and about various presidential administrations. This study as a whole is a case study with qualitative study aspects thereby making it a qualitative study as well. Analyzation of various pieces of legislation are done in conjunction with the analysis of various administrations. Therefore, the analysis of legislation and administration qualifies this study as a qualitative study through the means of studying multiple components. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS: The following terms and definitions are used throughout the thesis and will create a context of understanding that will explain further concepts in the thesis. Food Security: Access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food Stamps: The most expansive of the U.S. food and nutrition programs. The program is means tested; eligibility requires satisfying income and asset tests... Benefits are an important component of the bundle of government transfers for low income families. Food Insecurity: Limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, or limited or uncertain access to food. Low Socioeconomic Status: Households have little income or wealth to buffer against the negative impacts of an adverse health event (health shock) among adult household members. DELIMITATIONS: The limitations of this study include an always changing population which makes it difficult to get a real sense of the issue in America. Additionally, with the current state of the United States domestic policy regarding immigration and distrust for the government, many of the communities affected by this class issue may not feel safe in participating in research studies. Therefore, the sample size may be tainted, as well as changing definitions of nutrition, and other terminology that may make it hard to understand the spectrum of food secure individuals. Furthermore, research questions may lend themselves to unconscious biases which can lead participants to voting against their own self-interest. Also, the level to which participants comprehend the questions themselves can impact the outcome of the study. Any data or surveys contained in this thesis have been obtained from other academic sources. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: This study is important because it makes a connection and helps to understand how the federal government has failed a portion of the American fabric. It focuses on classism and how it has played a role in every institution and aspect of life, including food security. Classism related to the aspect of food security takes form in the shape of neglect and denial of the problem. This paper will explain how the federal government has neglected, disproportionately impacted, and effected individuals in their everyday life. It will show the positive and negative effects of the policies implemented throughout time and how these policies have increased food security or decreased food security throughout time. This study shows relevance of structural problems in American society, attempts to address the root cause of food insecurity, and its contributing factors. ORGANIZATION OF REMAINDER OF THE CHAPTERS The remaining chapters will cover the additional issues related to the thesis. Chapter 2 is the literature review which will discuss the sources used throughout the paper. Chapter 3 is the theoretical framework. This chapter will discuss specific concepts within a specific framework. Social choice theory is the theory utilized in this thesis. Chapter 4 is the methodology used to analyze this thesis. Chapter 5 is the qualitative data and the analysis of agricultural legislation throughout six different presidential administrations that have been implemented to either aid or reverse legislation. Chapter 6 is a summary of the whole thesis which will explain findings and results, the reader will understand what impact these institutions have had on low socio-economic communities throughout America and how republican elected officials have implemented policies that have negatively impacted these communities. Chapter 7 will include the conclusion of the thesis. Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to establish an understanding of the sources in the paper. The following chapter will establish how the sources contributed to the research of the paper in its entirety. Low socio economic communities have been disproportionately disadvantaged throughout the United States throughout history. At one point in history we saw a glimpse of a bright future where poverty rates dropped and funds for the poor doubled. From January 3, 1965 to January 3,1967 there were more that forty programs put in place to help the poor people of the United States of America. These programs were a part of President Lynden B. Johnson’s Great Society which can best be described as series of public policy initiatives and various types of legislation as well as social service programs. Johnson’s main objectives were to reduce or completely eliminate issues such as crime, poverty, abolishing inequality for all and improve the environment. One of the biggest policy implementation was the Food Stamp Act which helped kee